Time Off for Safe Leave Purposes
Fact Sheet: Time Off for Safe Leave Purposes
As the Nation’s largest employer, the Federal Government must be a model for providing leave policies that allow employees time away from work to care for themselves or a loved one. In a Presidential Memorandum, Supporting Access to Leave for Federal Employees, issued on February 2, 2023, President Biden acknowledged the importance of supporting Federal employees’ access to leave to seek safety and recover from domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault, or stalking, including when such conduct is facilitated by technology. The workplace flexibilities discussed here can be applied to situations in which the domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault, stalking, or related forms of abuse or harassment is currently taking place or to circumstances in which a past situation involving such violence, abuse, or harassment is currently causing a negative impact in the workplace.
The Federal Government strives to create an environment where Federal employees are able to take time off to address issues related to their own or a family member’s safety and to seek safety and recover from domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault, or stalking, or related forms of abuse or harassment, including economic abuse or other forms of technological abuse. The Biden-Harris Administration is committed to supporting employees in keeping themselves and their family members safe and to help employees maintain their work performance to safeguard their financial independence as they safely rebuild and heal.
The following guidance encourages departments and agencies to make maximum use of existing leave and work schedule flexibilities to the extent permitted by law to allow Federal employees time off for purposes related to seeking safety and recovering from domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault, stalking, or related forms of abuse or harassment. It also recognizes employees’ important caregiving relationships with family members, including individuals with equivalent relationships regardless of biological or legal relationship as outlined in the broad family member definition used for sick leave (see 5 CFR 630.201).
Various types of workplace flexibilities are available to an employee when the employee or the employee’s family member(s) experience domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault, stalking, or related forms of abuse or harassment. Agencies should work in collaboration with the employee to consider all options for taking time off and should provide time off or other workplace flexibilities to the maximum extent practicable, in accordance with the laws and regulations governing these programs and consistent with mission needs, to help the employee remain safe and maintain work performance.
Qualifying safe leave purposes
Agencies should support an employee requesting time off from work for qualifying safe leave purposes related to seeking safety and recovering from domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault, stalking, or related forms of abuse or harassment (including economic abuse or other forms of technological abuse) to the maximum extent practicable, even in situations, as described in more detail below, where the employee requests leave or other time off through a third party, such as an employee in the HR office who administers the agency’s employee assistance program. Also, a past incident may result in current needs as the employee recovers from the incident. This support should also be extended to an employee assisting a family member for qualifying safe leave purposes.
Federal employees may need time off (paid or unpaid, as appropriate) to engage in various activities for themselves or to assist a family member, such as the following:
- Seeking medical treatment, including seeking mental health services such as counseling or therapy;
- Securing housing or relocating;
- Obtaining services from organizations or groups that provide services for survivors of domestic violence, sexual assault, image-based abuse, human trafficking, or stalking;
- Participating in safety planning or taking other actions to increase safety;
- Attending court to obtain a protective order, participate in child custody proceedings, or obtain legal or other victim services; or
- Otherwise dealing with the consequences of the abusive behavior (for example, arranging for childcare, enrolling a family member in a new school due to relocation).
Time off for “qualifying safe leave purposes” applies when an employee engages in the above-listed or similar activities for themselves or to assist a family member, as appropriate.
Definition of “family member” for safe leave purposes where appropriate
As noted above, an employee may take time off to assist a family member for safe leave purposes. For purposes of safe leave, agencies should use the broad “family member” definition in OPM’s sick leave regulations (See 5 CFR 630.201). The definition covers a wide range of relationships, including spouse; parents; parents-in-law; children; brothers; sisters; grandparents; grandchildren; step-parents; step-children; foster parents; foster children; guardianship relationships; same sex and opposite sex domestic partners; spouses or domestic partners of the aforementioned, as applicable; and any individual related by blood or affinity whose close association with the employee is the equivalent of a family relationship. The list of family members may be found on our Fact Sheet: Definitions Related to Family Member and Immediate Relative.
Requesting leave or other time off for safe leave purposes
There are various time off options to address safe leave purposes. The leave options available to an employee may be different depending on the specific activities and whether employees are engaging in the activities for themselves or are assisting a family member who is engaging in those activities. Possible leave options include annual leave (including advanced annual leave), sick leave (including advanced sick leave), weather and safety leave (as discussed below), and leave without pay. Employees may also have access to other earned paid time off, such as compensatory time off.
Hours of leave and other time off are charged to cover absences during an employee’s tour of duty established for leave-charging purposes. For full-time employees, that tour of duty is an 80-hour biweekly basic (non-overtime) tour unless they have an uncommon tour of duty as described in 5 CFR 630.210. Each part-time employee has a tour of duty for leave-charging purposes based on the regularly established hours that are minimally required.
While an employee should generally request leave or time off for safe leave purposes within such time limits as the agency may require, agencies should be accommodating, to the maximum extent practicable as permitted by law, and understand employees may not be in a position to make advance time-off requests for safe leave purposes. If an employee is unable, for reasons beyond the employee’s control, to obtain advance approval for an absence for a valid safe leave purpose, the employing agency should retroactively approve an appropriate form of approved paid or unpaid leave upon the employee’s return to work.
Agency policies should allow an employee the opportunity to request leave or other time off through a third party, such as an Employee Assistance Program (EAP) coordinator or other point of contact identified by the agency, if the employee does not feel comfortable speaking with a supervisor. Although the supervisor is the only person who can approve the leave, the leave request may be made through the third party.
Employees are not required to provide personal details in their requests for leave. However, employees are required to provide enough information in their leave requests so their supervisors know which type of leave is appropriate (sick leave, annual leave, leave without pay under the Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA), etc.). Supervisors should consider whether an employee is entitled to a certain type of leave (for example, FMLA or sick leave) or whether an employee’s request for leave other than under the FMLA should be granted. Details on the administration of leave will be provided by the agency.
Requesting information to support requests for leave or time off for safe leave purposes
An employee’s credible statement that they are dealing with domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault, stalking, or related forms of abuse or harassment should generally be a sufficient basis for an agency to grant applicable types of leave for qualifying safe leave purposes. If the agency deems it necessary to request additional information for purposes of verification, supporting information may include, but need not be limited to, a service provider’s statement, medical records or a doctor’s statement, as well as a protection order or police or court reports. Under no circumstances should the agency require the employee to contact law enforcement or otherwise report the violence as a condition for accessing leave. To do so could place survivors in greater danger.
Below is a list of available workplace flexibilities and options for leave and other time off that should be incorporated into agency-specific policies for addressing domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault, stalking, or related forms of abuse or harassment. It is important to note that these options can be applied to situations in which the domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault, stalking, or related forms of abuse or harassment is currently taking place or to circumstances in which a past situation involving such violence, abuse, or harassment is currently causing a negative impact in the workplace. Examples of the latter include when an employee may need to seek supportive services for ongoing trauma caused by abuse years later or ongoing custody disputes with an abusive ex-partner many years after an incident of domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault, stalking, or related forms of abuse or harassment.
Leave options
Annual leave. Agencies should grant annual leave for all safe leave purposes, including time off for non-medical reasons, for employees to:
- secure housing or relocate;
- obtain services from organizations or groups that provide services for survivors of domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault, image-based abuse, stalking, or related forms of abuse or harassment;
- participate in safety planning or take other actions to increase safety;
- attend court proceedings to obtain a protective order;
- participate in child custody proceedings;
- obtain legal or other victim services; or
- otherwise deal with the consequences of the abusive behavior.
Annual leave can also be used in lieu of sick leave to obtain treatment for illnesses or injuries as a result of domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault, stalking, or related forms of abuse or harassment. An employee has a right to take annual leave, the timing of which would be subject to agency approval.
For example, an employee attending court proceedings against a former spouse who fraudulently obtained access to the employee’s financial information should be granted annual leave. If the employee testifies as a witness during a criminal trial against the perpetrator, the agency should provide the employee with court leave.
Advanced annual leave. If an employee has exhausted accrued annual leave, agencies should approve an employee’s request to use advanced annual leave in an amount not to exceed the amount the employee would accrue in the remainder of the leave year.
For example, an employee meeting with an organization providing services for survivors of domestic violence to create a safety plan or to relocate to safe housing should be granted advanced annual leave to the extent permitted by law if the employee has exhausted available annual leave.
Sick leave. An employee is entitled to use sick leave, consistent with current law and regulations for granting and using sick leave. Sick leave may be used without limitation when, as a result of domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault, stalking, or related forms of abuse or harassment, the employee:
- receives medical, dental or optical examination or treatment for injuries (including mental health services such as counseling or therapy provided by a health care provider); or
- is incapacitated for the performance of duties by physical or mental illness or injury.
For example, an employee who is seeking medical treatment associated with an abuse committed years prior by the employee’s partner, or who is suffering from emotional distress such that the employee is incapacitated for the performance of duties, should be granted sick leave. The date of abuse should not be a factor in approving sick leave. If the employee has exhausted available sick leave, advanced sick leave should be granted to the extent permitted by law.
Sick leave may not be used for safe leave purposes that are not allowable under the sick leave regulations (for instance, participating in child custody proceedings).
Sick leave for family care. An employee is entitled to use up to 13 days (104 hours for employees with an 80-hour biweekly tour of duty) of sick leave each leave year when, as a result of domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault, stalking, or related forms of abuse or harassment, the employee needs to:
- provide care for a family member who is incapacitated as a result of physical or mental illness or injury; or
- attend to a family member receiving medical, dental, or optical examination or treatment (including mental health services such as counseling or therapy provided by a health care provider).
For example, an employee taking a daughter to receive therapy for trauma associated with online harassment and abuse by a former partner who stalked her using technology and threatened her through online platforms should be granted sick leave for family care. If the employee has exhausted available sick leave, advanced sick leave should be granted to the extent permitted by law.
Sick leave for serious health condition of a family member. An employee is entitled to use up to 12 weeks (480 hours for employees with an 80-hour biweekly tour of duty) of sick leave each leave year when, as a result of domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault, stalking, or related forms of abuse or harassment, the employee needs to provide care for a family member with a serious health condition, which includes 13 days of sick leave for general family care or bereavement purposes. If the employee previously has used any portion of the 13 days of sick leave for general family care or bereavement purposes in a leave year, that amount must be subtracted from the 12-week entitlement. If an employee has already used 12 weeks of sick leave to care for a family member with a serious health condition, the employee cannot use an additional 13 days in the same leave year for general family care purposes. An employee is entitled to no more than a combined total of 12 weeks of sick leave each leave year for all family care purposes.
In the Sick Leave for Family Care example above, if the employee’s child has been diagnosed with chronic depression and anxiety disorder, serious medical conditions requiring ongoing mental health treatment, the employee should be granted sick leave to care for a family member with a serious health condition (that is, up to 12 weeks). If the employee has exhausted available sick leave, the employee should be granted advanced sick leave to care for a family member with a serious health condition to the maximum extent permitted by law.
Advanced sick leave. Agencies should approve an employee’s request to use advanced sick leave to the extent permitted by law for any of the purposes referenced above if the employee has exhausted available sick leave. An agency may advance up to 13 days of sick leave for the employee’s own—or a family member’s—medical, dental, or optical examinations or treatment, or to care for a family member who is incapacitated by a medical or mental condition. If the employee is incapacitated and unable to perform job duties or if the family member’s injury rises to the level of a “serious health condition,” an agency may advance up to 30 days of sick leave to the employee.
For example, an employee who requires medical attention due to an injury associated with physical violence should be granted advanced sick leave to the extent permitted by law if the employee has exhausted available sick leave.
Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA). An employee is entitled to up to 12 weeks of unpaid leave under FMLA if domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault, stalking, or related forms of abuse or harassment results in a serious health condition for the employee that makes the employee unable to perform the essential functions of the employee’s position. Under the FMLA, leave can only be used to care for specifically defined group of family members—that is, spouse, son or daughter (under 18 or over 18 but incapable of self-care because of a mental or physical disability), or parent of the employee (see 5 U.S.C. 6381 and 5 CFR 630.1202 for the definition of a family member)—with a serious health condition. Annual leave, sick leave, and donated annual leave under the Voluntary Leave Transfer or Voluntary Leave Bank Programs may be substituted for FMLA unpaid leave, as appropriate (see below).
For example, an employee whose 16-year-old daughter needs surgery for an injury caused by the employee’s live-in partner assaulting her is entitled to FMLA leave to care for the daughter with a serious health condition.
Leave without pay (LWOP). Agencies should grant LWOP to an employee to be absent from work for safe leave purposes, even if the employee has available paid leave. See section 3 of the Presidential Memorandum, Supporting Access to Leave for Federal Employees, issued by President Biden on February 2, 2023. As with annual leave and advanced leave, agencies should approve requests by employees for LWOP for safe leave purposes. General LWOP may be granted under internal agency policies. In addition, the Family and Medical Leave Act entitles employees to up to 12 weeks of leave without pay as described further below.
For example, an employee seeking alternative housing because the employee’s partner used all of the employee’s finances and restricted access to the employee’s own bank account and credit cards should be granted leave without pay if the employee has exhausted available annual and sick leave and has already been granted advanced leave to the maximum extent permitted by law.
Voluntary leave transfer and leave bank programs. An employee is eligible to apply for donated annual leave if the domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault, stalking, or related forms of abuse or harassment results in a medical emergency for either the employee or the employee’s family member that is likely to require the employee to be absent from duty for a prolonged period and to result in a substantial loss of income because of the employee’s lack of available paid leave.
In the FMLA example above, the employee whose 16-year-old daughter needs surgery may apply for donated annual leave under the VLTP and/or VLBP (if available at the agency). If the employee has exhausted available paid leave the employee may qualify for donated annual leave.
Weather and safety leave. Agencies should consider granting weather and safety leave to an employee who is unable to safely work at an approved location (either an agency worksite or an approved telework/remote work location) because of safety risks associated with domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault, or stalking, and other related forms of abuse or harassment—for example, an active threat of physical violence at the work location (including such threats communicated online). The granting of weather and safety leave would depend on the safety risks associated with the given work location.
Weather and safety leave cannot be based on a safety issue for a family member. For telework and remote work employees, weather and safety leave based on a safety risk at the telework/remote worksite can apply only on a workday when the employee is scheduled to work via telework or remote work at the approved telework/remote worksite.
The weather and safety leave statute applies only when an employee is prevented from traveling to or performing work at an approved location due to the circumstances set forth in 5 U.S.C. 6329c and 5 CFR part 630, subpart P, and would apply differently depending on the location subject to safety concerns—an agency worksite or a telework/remote work approved alternate location. As it relates to domestic violence and related situations, weather and safety leave should be considered in emergency situations to cover an employee who is unable to safely work at an approved location (either an agency worksite or an approved telework/remote work location) because of safety risks associated with domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault, stalking, and other related forms of abuse or harassment. For example, if the perpetrator arrives at the employee’s worksite and the employee is unable to safely work because of an active threat of physical violences, the agency should grant weather and safety leave on that day while the employee is dealing with the safety situation that prevents the employee from safely working at the worksite. Agencies should consider the following additional guidance:
- At agency worksites that have security measures to limit public access to employees, weather and safety leave would not usually be necessary because a perpetrator would not be able to get past building security. However, if the perpetrator is allowed access to the employee (for example, authorized entry into the agency worksite for a meeting or lunch appointment), any escalation and active threat of physical violence to the employee would be an emergency situation that prevents the employee from safely performing work at the normal worksite. Thus, the agency may determine that it is appropriate to provide weather and safety leave on the affected workday as long as there is a threat to the employee’s safety. If the threat persists beyond that day, the agency should immediately consider the need to approve an alternate work location for a temporary period (for example, home, agency telework site, or other safe location).
- At agency worksites without security measures such as those in public service settings or locations without building security, the perpetrator would have access to the employee at the agency worksite. When a perpetrator poses a threat to the employee’s safety at the agency worksite, it would be reasonable for an agency to grant weather and safety leave for the remainder of the workday—unless the threat is resolved before the end of the workday or the employee is telework-eligible and is able to work at a safe alternative location approved by the agency. If the threat persists beyond that day, the agency should immediately consider the need to approve an alternate work location for a temporary period (for example, home, agency telework site, or other safe location).
- At a telework or remote worksite, the perpetrator could have access to the employee. Any escalation and threat to the employee on a workday would prevent the employee from safely performing work at the approved alternate worksite. Thus, it would be reasonable for an agency to grant weather and safety leave for the remainder of the workday. If the threat persists beyond that day, the agency should immediately consider the need to approve an alternate work location for a temporary period.
- If the threat is resolved, the employee would not be eligible for continued use of weather and safety leave but should be allowed to take other appropriate leave to recover from the threat incident (for example, annual leave or, if applicable, sick leave).
- If the threat at the agency worksite or the employee’s approved alternate telework/remote work location occurs frequently or over an extended period of time for the same employee, agencies should work with the agency’s EAP staff to establish a safety plan that would allow the employee to perform work at different alternate locations. Once such a safety plan is in place, use of weather and safety leave should be discontinued.
Paid time off options
Credit hours (flexible work schedules). Credit hours can be earned and used only by employees who are participating in a flexible work schedule program that provides for credit hours. An employee who works under a flexible work schedule that permits credit hours may elect to work in excess of the employee’s basic work requirement (for example, 80 hours in a pay period for a full-time employee) so as to vary the length of a workweek or workday. Agency policies or union agreements may place restrictions on earning or using credit hours. If an agency authorizes credit hours under its flexible work schedule program, employees may carry over a maximum of 24 credit hours from one pay period to another. Employees may use credit hours to fulfill their basic work requirement. Agencies should allow employees to use earned credit hours for safe leave purposes.
Compensatory time off. Employees may earn compensatory time off in lieu of overtime pay in exchange for performing an equal amount of time in irregular or occasional overtime work or, when permitted under agency flexible work schedule programs, for approved regularly scheduled or irregular or occasional overtime work. Agencies should allow employees to use earned compensatory time off for safe leave purposes.
Compensatory time off for travel. Employees earn this type of compensatory time off for time spent in a travel status away from the employee’s official duty station when such time is not otherwise compensated. Agencies should allow employees to use earned compensatory time off for travel for safe leave purposes.
Note: Members of the Senior Executive Service (SES) may not accrue credit hours or compensatory time off. While SES members may not earn credit hours, they may participate in flexible work schedule programs.
Workplace and work scheduling flexibilities
Telework and remote work. Agencies should, to the maximum extent practicable, permit a telework-ready employee to work from an alternative agency-approved worksite or to work remotely if the employee (or a family member for whom the employee is caring) is experiencing problems associated with domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault, stalking, or related forms of abuse or harassment.* Telework or remote work allows an employee to continue to perform work in an alternate location while keeping safe the employee, the employee’s family members, or the employee’s coworkers. An employee must follow the agency’s telework policy for requesting leave and work scheduling changes when performing telework or remote work. If an employee reports that a perpetrator who is posing a threat to the employee knows the location of a possible telework or remote work location, the agency should, if possible, approve an alternative safe work location identified by the employee.
* Note: A telework-ready employee is someone who has been deemed eligible to telework by the agency and who has entered into an official telework agreement (2021 Guide to Telework and Remote Work in the Federal Government, page 7).
Flexible work schedules. Agencies should, to the maximum extent practicable, permit an employee on an approved flexible work schedule to adjust the employee’s work schedule, such as reporting times and work hours, to accommodate activities related to safe leave purposes in accordance with agency internal policies and collective bargaining agreements. For example, adjusting reporting times and work hours would support the safety of an employee who is being stalked or has been threatened or abused by a perpetrator who knows the employee’s work schedule. Employees represented by an exclusively recognized union may participate in a flexible work schedule only to the extent expressly provided under a collective bargaining agreement between the agency and the exclusive representative (see 5 U.S.C. § 6130(a)(2)). Agencies should review their internal flexible work schedule policies and practices and collective bargaining agreements and adjust accordingly to permit an employee to adjust their schedule for safe leave purposes.
Employee Wellness through the support of Employee Assistance Programs
Employee Wellness Programs (EWP) are a network of support programs that can assist Federal Employees in increasing their physical, mental, and emotional well-being. Federal Employee Assistance Programs (EAP) is one component of an EWP that provides free and confidential help for employees working through various life challenges that may adversely affect job performance, health, and personal well-being. Designed to optimize an organization’s success, EAPs can assist an employee who is experiencing domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault, stalking, or related forms of abuse or harassment, including economic abuse or technological abuse. Agencies should support employees who choose to make use of these services for safe leave purposes, in addition to any augmenting resources, classes, services, and activities offered.
Chiefly, the EAP is a comprehensive referral source for many kinds of services such as emergency safety services (such as shelters and 24-hour crisis hotlines), local domestic violence programs, court advocacy, childcare, health care, social services, legal aid, counseling services, and support groups. With the written consent of the employee, the practitioner can act as a liaison with outside agencies providing services to the employee, advocating on their behalf when requested, to help connect the employee to appropriate services. Some counselors may have specialized training in domestic violence, stalking, harassment, or sexual assault and related matters, may offer insight in developing a safety plan at work, and can be a source of guidance for the manager who wants to be supportive. [Note: While EAPs may provide referrals for specialized services to employees who are in need of additional support (including victims/survivors of domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault, stalking, or related forms of abuse or harassment), they should not be utilized as a substitute for victim advocacy programs or for critical incident response.]
In cases where there is a clear threat to workplace safety or the employee is asking for help, effective responses of support can be initiated by an EAP coordinator, and may include management, security staff, union representatives, human resources administrators, and members of the workplace violence team, to coordinate efforts with one another to develop and execute a workplace safety plan.
Definitions
Below are definitions of some key terms that will be helpful when reading this fact sheet. [Note: These definitions are based on the Violence Against Women Act of 1994 codified at 34 U.S.C. 12291(a) with slight modifications to simplify application of these guidelines.]
Dating violence. Violence committed by a person who is or has been in a social relationship of a romantic or intimate nature with the victim and where the existence of such a relationship is determined by the length of the relationship, the type of relationship, and the frequency of interaction between the persons involved in the relationship.
Domestic violence. The use or attempted use of physical abuse or sexual abuse, or a pattern of any other coercive behavior, including acts or threatened acts, committed, enabled, or solicited to gain or maintain power and control over a victim, including verbal, emotional, psychological, economic, or technological abuse that may or may not constitute criminal behavior, by a person who:
- is a current or former spouse or intimate partner of the victim, or person similarly situated to a spouse of the victim;
- is cohabitating, or has cohabitated, with the victim as a spouse or intimate partner;
- shares a child in common with the victim; or
- commits acts against a youth or adult victim who is protected from those acts under the family or domestic violence laws of the jurisdiction.
Economic abuse. Behavior that is coercive, deceptive, or unreasonably controls or restrains a person’s ability to acquire, use, or maintain economic resources to which they are entitled, including using coercion, fraud, or manipulation to (1) restrict a person’s access to money, assets, credit, or financial information, (2) unfairly use a person’s personal economic resources, including money, assets, and credit, for one’s own advantage, or (3) exert undue influence over a person’s financial and economic behavior or decisions, including forcing default on joint or other financial obligations, exploiting powers of attorney, guardianship, or conservatorship, or failing or neglecting to act in the best interests of a person to whom one has a fiduciary duty.
Sexual assault. Any nonconsensual sexual act, completed or attempted, or abusive sexual contact, including when the victim lacks capacity to consent.
Stalking. Engaging in a course of conduct directed at a specific person that would cause a reasonable person to (1) fear for one’s safety or the safety of others or (2) suffer substantial emotional distress. Stalking conduct may include, but is not limited to, following, spying on, or waiting for the victim in places such as home, school, work, or recreation place; leaving unwanted items, presents, or flowers for the victim; and making direct or indirect threats to harm the victim, the victim’s children, relatives, friends, pets, or property. Stalking may occur through use of technology, including but not limited to, email, telephone, voicemail, text messaging, and use of GPS and social networking sites.
Technological abuse. An act or pattern of behavior that is intended to harm, threaten, intimidate, control, stalk, harass, impersonate, exploit, extort, or monitor, except as otherwise permitted by law, another person, that occurs using any form of technology, including but not limited to: internet enabled devices, online spaces and platforms, computers, mobile devices, cameras and imaging programs, apps, location tracking devices, or communication technologies, or any other emerging technologies.